Tomorrow in History

Christendom

2009-12-02T17:20:00.000-08:00

I thought Christianity would be the religion that I would know the most about of all the worlds major religions, but it turns out that I am wrong again. The more I read about the Christendom the more I am amazed at what I did not know. The fact that Christianity developed from Judaism and was not tolerated for several years in Rome. Until the Edict of Milan, which announced that the Roman Empire would be tolerant of other religions. Constantine and Licinius, the emperors of the western and eastern parts of the empire, signed edict at a wedding in Milan. It stated that the Christians were to have their confiscated property returned. The Edict of Milan was signed in 313CE, the next revolution for Christendom after that was the First Council of Nicaea, in 325. This was important because it was the first meeting of all the bishops of the church, also the Creed of Nicaea was created here. In 392 Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and the old pagan religion was outlawed. Once the western half of the Roman Empire collapsed, the churches in the western half were no longer connected with emperor and changed as a result. The eastern half of the empire became known as the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire was then ruled by Constantine the Great until 337, when he died. He is known for helping Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire. At this point Christianity became more complex, creating different branches and denominations; there was the Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, Protestant. Overtime the Christendom has grown from a small Jewish sect to one of the world’s largest religions with billions of followers.

Muhammad

2009-11-21T15:37:00.000-08:00

With all the different types of religions and practices it is hard to remember what’s what and the differences and similarities. One thing all religions have in common is they all have a leader of some sort, Christianity has Jesus, Buddhism has Buddha, and Islam has Muhammad. Muhammad is considered the founder of Islam and was a prophet and messenger to God. He grew up an orphan and lived with many different families, when he was older he became a merchant, traveling between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. He later married a much older wealthy widow named Khadija, but also had 12 other wives later. He had seven children, most of which died, and only one carried on his name. In 610 the angel Gabriel appeared to him, while he was meditating in a cave outside of Mecca. Gabriel told Muhammad that he was messenger to God; Muhammad only told close friends and family at first. Then he started preaching and gaining followers. During the years following Muhammad had many supporters, but he also had many opponents, most of which were gained when he condemned the worshiping of idols. Also, many people were not happy that he was preaching monotheism and there were many attempts to take his life. Around this time Muhammad and his followers moved from Mecca to Medina; Medina means “city of the prophet” and became the first Muslim settlement. Soon after Muhammad left Mecca, war broke out between the two. After the war ended from a treaty, Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Three months later he died from an illness; he was burned where he died and is housed in a mosque in Medina. He word lives on through the Qur'an and the Islamic religion.

Sources:
http://www.pbs.org/muhammad/timeline_html.shtml
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad

Innovation and tragedy

2009-11-21T11:38:00.000-08:00

When we first started learning about Islamic influences I had no idea just how far they stretched and how much of my day-to-day life has its beginnings in Islam. Everyday I use medicine, paper, complex mathmatetics and textiles. It has always been an assumption of mine that these goods and ideas were created by those who lived in the more Western regions of Europe and China.

I again stand corrected. I thought I had a good grasp on the past and where certain things came from but some everyday things just didn’t occur to me to ask whom, how and when they were made. It was quite interesting to watch the movie on Islam in class and to learn about the beginnings of so many things. When the video began I was in awe of all the developments that came from Islam and especially from Baghdad and the House of Wisdom. I had previously never learned any Islam history and all I knew about it was that they were Muslim. The scientific discoveries of that time, as I said before affect me everyday. The innovation that came with the far-reaching trade routes and systems allowed for trade of goods across the entire continent and merging of culture, goods, ideas, and religion. I thought that only good had come from this until I learned of the Crusades. I had only briefly heard about the Crusades, which now seems impossible to me that I had not learned more about these events before. I guess that comes from growing up in a Catholic home.

The video, with its cheesy remake and dramatic voice-overs really changed what I knew about history. The movie depicted the events in a way that the book could not, as a violent and totally unnecessary massacre. The events during the Crusades parallel what is going on now and I just can’t help but think that we will never learn what we need to from history, and we will always be bound to repeat events. Who knows what kinds of further innovations could have been created from some of the great minds in Islam if they had not been killed in Jerusalem. Now a days we can see some more great minds coming out of Islam, just like in the past there was soap, spices, fine goods, and knowledge, today we can credit them with further medical innovations, engine technology, and popular iPhone applications, which shows that the influence of Islam can be seen in the past, present, and the future.

http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=islamic+inventions&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8

Five Pillars of Islam

2009-11-20T07:03:00.000-08:00

The Five Pillars of Islam laid out the structure in which the Muslim way of life was formed. In class we discussed the five different pillars briefly, so I choose to examine each Pillar a little more in depth.

The First Pillar was that there may be no god worshipped but the God and His messenger Muhammad. Muslims would often say, la ilaha illa Llah, which translated from Arabic means, 'There is no god except God.' This is the Muslims way of declaring their devotion to their only God.

The second Pillar was focused around prayer. They were expected to pray at least five times a day. Salat is the name of the prayer they preformed five times throughout the day; it was concerned as a direct link between the individual and God. Not only do they have requirements about the number of times they pray these prayers also have to be said at certain times: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset and nightfall. This sequence order helped keep order to their daily activities. One of their prayers translated into English goes as follows...

"God is most great. God is most great.God is most great. God is most great.I testify that there is no god except God.I testify that there is no god except God.I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.Come to prayer! Come to prayer!Come to success (in this life and the Hereafter)!Come to success!God is most great. God is most great.There is no god except God."

The third Pillar's purpose was to give people's "things" and wealth to God. Muslims must set aside a portion of their resources to those in greater need. There is a certain calculation the Muslims must do to determine the amount they must give to charity and that is known as their 'Zakat.' This is meant to keep money and other resources evenly throughout the country.

The fourth Pillar was fasting. During the month of Ramadan each year the Muslim must fast. This fasting includes more than just the absence of food; they are also required to stop drinking and all sexual relations during this month. The purpose of this is to maintain good health and proper self purification.

The fifth Pillar is only for those that are able to perform: both financially and physically. There is an annual pilgrimage to Makkah. About two million people from all different countries attend each year. Here they perform the rites of Hajj. The people must circle the famous Ka'ba seven times, and go between the mountains of Safa and Marwa, as did Hagar while searching for water, seven times. The end of this likely struggle is followed by a festival, Eid al-Adha. Here is a picture of people circling the Ka'ba.

Each of these Pillars keep the Muslims in order and keep their thoughts focused on God. Without these certain requirements their religion may not be as strong as it is today. Even though to us some of these Pillars may seem extreme and difficult to accomplish they were proud and likely to do them all without shame.

http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/pillars.shtml

Striking Similarites: Christianity and Islam

2009-11-18T11:28:00.000-08:00

How many of us can explain either of the world's vast religions? From our own society in this part of the world, it is likely most know a bit about the Christian religion. Maybe if you follow another specific religion, you can surely tell all about your own. However, do you know any of the elements of another? Have you ever examined anything beyond your own personal beliefs? I admit, before learning about Islam, I never realized its origins or connections it has with another main religion, Christianity. To illustrate, here is a list of fundamental concepts that both Islam and Christianity share. This will surely enlighten you on both of these major world religions that have existed for several hundreds of years.

Monotheism: One God, recognized as the Creator.
God is omnipotent, omniscient, immanent within His creation yet transcendent.
At the end of the world, God will judge humans based on their actions in compliance with a moral code, specified in the Covenant which God makes with us.
This judgment will determine one's eternal abode, heaven or hell
Human beings have a soul which is eternal, continuing its existence after our physical death
Humans have the ability (free will) to choose between good and evil
Angels exist who are the servants, and sometimes messengers of God
Satan exists, as well as evil spirits who follow him; they are the enemies of humanity
Miracles occur on occasion.
If a person errs or transgresses, God may forgive them, if they sincerely repent.
Prophets brought spiritual instruction.
Jesus Christ was born to the virgin Mary.
At the time of the end of the world, Jesus Christ will come again.
Prayer is a means of communicating with God; God hears prayers and sometimes grants requests.
Charity and relieving the suffering of others carries spiritual rewards.
Certain standard prayers exist.

This long list of very significant items shows how similar these two religions are. It is quite curious to consider the members of each of these religions and their own understanding of the other. Are they aware? Would they be shocked to see this list of similarities?

Islam: Qur’an

2009-11-17T18:57:00.000-08:00

A couple weeks ago, I discussed the importance of sacred texts and intentionally focused on Buddhism and Christianity. This week, coming back to the idea of sacred texts, I explored the religion of Islam and its holy text, the Qur’an.

In my opinion, holy texts offer a reference to answers in life. These answers include how to live life, the purpose of life, and after life. For the Islamic faith, the answers lie in the Qur’an.

Originally written in Arabic text, the Qur’an offers guidance and direction for mankind. The Islamic faith rose to existence as the angel Gabriel spoke to Muhammad while he resided in the mountains. Muhammad soon gathered followers to memorize and recite the word of Gabriel. These teachings did not become documented right away, like many other religions. Instead, Islam continued orally, and eventually, individuals began recording the Qur’an on tablets and other surfaces. Individuals pooled together the tablets and other surfaces with the holy text to produce the completed version of the Qur’an after Muhammad’s death.

The text consists of one hundred fourteen chapters each of varying length. Interestingly, the text does not seem to have a beginning, middle, and end. Also, the Qur’an mentions stories of people and events found in the Jewish and Christian religion, some including Noah, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and John the Baptist.

One of the principles of the Islamic faith consists of prayer. Prayer, typically, involves reciting segments of Qur’an. For this reason, many Muslims end up memorizing much of the Qur’an.

Originally written in Arabic text, printed on large tablets, the Qur’an appeared to be an inconvenience. However, in today’s society, an individual can access the Qur’an in different languages, fonts, and sizes. With improving technology in the past decade, individuals have uploaded the Qur’an to the internet for anyone to access.

In my opinion...

2009-11-14T17:59:00.000-08:00

When the topic of Christianity came up in class I had thought I knew everything I wanted to know about the subject, which was not much at all, I stand corrected. When the topic started I had no idea where the religion originated from, much less that it had a similar developmental frame as Buddhism, a religion that is regarded today as so different from Christianity. The term salvation religion had been foreign to me, and seems like something lost in the past when looking at how religion is today and the amount of money that goes through churches. Churches in my hometown seem to compete to have the nicest buildings and the largest congregations. I can relate this now to the time when Constantine announced that he had converted to Christianity and money from the empire went into building great structures devoted to Christianity and spreading the word and the belief of the religion.

I feel that for some, in our times and in the time of Constantine and the formation of Christianity and other Universal religions, the true sense was somewhat lost. People felt more inclined to be part of a group then they felt a spiritual connection to the religion. I have noticed this in some, I am not saying all, people in Michigan who go to church and are motivated by an outside source. I feel that in the beginning they had it right, fighting for what they want and for what they believe in, no matter what beliefs. The closest I feel that we have come to the type of religious persecution in individuals in my generation would be political differences involving voting. Religious uprisings are present everyday in countries all over the world, causing wars and death, however it is sad to look at the US and see how this goes relatively unnoticed. I feel that people of my generation, the 20 something’s of the world in the US need to start believing in something if we ever hope to understand where the foundations of our society, religion, and culture come from.

Living in a Christian World

2009-11-14T07:36:00.000-08:00

Last week my blog discussed how St. Paul spread the Christian beliefs, this week I am going to discuss what happened after many people begun believing and following St. Paul's ideas on Christianity. "Christendom" was the term used to identify the group of Christians that had faith in Christ and followed the ways of the bible. After time this group grew to be very large, and it is categorized into three different time periods: The early Christendom, middle Christendom, and the late Christendom.

The early Christendom period was when Christianity was first introduced to the Western world during the second century. Christianity was a different belief system and many felt unsure about the ideas it contained, so therefore many were prosecuted for believing these ideas.

The middle Christendom was during the Renaissance period. During this period Christianity was brought into more aspects of everyday life, economics, social life and especially politics. The church was now considered an institution and the Byzantium Empire was becoming a member of the "Christendom". Many would unsure if the Christian beliefs of the political leaders were something that would continue into more recent generation, or if it was only popular because Christianity was still new to the world. The Byzantium empire eventually lost control over the Islam and Muslim territories, resulting in a major decline of the Byzantium empire. This event ended the middle Christendom.

During the late Christendom the Western church had control over the majority of European Christians. A true pope was identified by the splitting of the Western world into the complete control by three men that were chosen by politics. Each of these men were claiming to be the true pope. This crisis caused each state to operate on an independent level. The Western world was no longer depending on other states. These changes caused centralized monarchies to form and also the Hundred Years' War to increase in process. At the end of the war enough money was raised from taxation of the public to officially establish the English Church.

The Christendom period had several of changes, and each change led the Western world a little closer to the development of the English Church. Without these doubts and wars fought about Christianity, it would not be as strong as a religion as it is to this day. Here is a video of the artifacts, artwork, and famous cathedrals during the rise of Christianity. I find the song to also have meaning to the rise of Christianity. Many truly did view Jesus as the sun, because it was a fresh idea and the results of following Christianity were appealing and bright!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christendom

Constantine (the Great?)

2009-11-12T12:17:00.000-08:00

A Roman emperor by the name of Constantine I stopped the persecutions of Christians started by his predecessor, Diocletian. During Diocletian’s rule, Christians were not allowed to practice their religion; instead, they were required to follow the Roman gods. In order to enforce this, Diocletian persecuted those who were Christians. In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan which allowed citizens to practice any religion without being punished.
Why did Constantine create the Edict of Milan and convert to Christianity?
Constantine led the Romans to many military victories including the Battle of Milvian Bridge. However, this battle differed from his other battles. Constantine faced Maxentius, a rebellious Caesar, making this a civil war. During this war, Constantine claims that he saw a symbol (The Labarum) which changed his views of Christians from that point on. Constantine believed that the symbol and Christianity helped him win the Battle of Milvian Bridge, so he converted to Christianity. Constantine created the Edict of Milan, supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy, and promoted Christians to high office positions.
Constantine earned “the Great” from Christian historians, but should he have deserved this title because he was a Christian? Constantine could have claimed the title through his military achievements as well.
In 337, Constantine fell ill. At this point in his life, he decided to be baptized in the Jordan River (where Jesus himself was baptized). Why did he put off baptism until the last days of his life? Some thought Constantine did this to be forgiven for as much of his sin as possible. However, all sin is forgiven as long as an individual confesses them and attempts to live life according to God. For this reason, I do not believe Constantine to be a good Christian. This is much like Christians today who claim to be Christian because they attend church, but they do not live the way God intends them to live. In both cases, I think hypocritical describes the situations, and for this reason I believe that Constantine does not deserve the title of “the Great.”
However, without Constantine, Christianity could be non-existent today. Constantine’s work of making Christianity popular and ceasing the persecution of Christians helped the religion stay alive and spreading. Today in America, Christianity is the most popular religion, and without Constantine, many Americans, including myself, would follow some other religion. For this reason, I think Constantine deserves the title of “the Great.”

First Council of Nicaea

2009-11-11T11:05:00.000-08:00

The First Council of Nicaea is a significant historical event in Christendom. It was a council called by Emperor Constantine I in 325 CE. Its purpose was to basically organize Christianity and set the movement straight. It did this by determining the debates of this early time, for example, when Christ's resurrection should be celebrated.
An important outcome of this event was the first agreed upon doctrine of Christianity. It is known as the Nicene Creed and was stated as follows:

We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father [the only-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance (ὁμοούσιον) with the Father; by whom all things were made [both in heaven and on earth]; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; he suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.
And in the Holy Ghost.
[But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or 'changeable,' or 'alterable'—they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.]

As we can see from this, the council engaged heavily in technical Christology for the first time. Clarifying the divinity of Jesus was vital for the religion as it is the key to Christianity, even today. Along with this Creed, the council developed roughly twenty decrees.
The significance of this one event is incontrovertible as it has had lasting effects for hundreds and hundreds of years. It was the first time that numerous representatives of the Church agreed upon a specific doctoral statement. Along with this, it was the first time the Emperor played a large role in calling members of the Church under his power. Overall, this council remains a major event in the history of Christianity.

Constantine and Christianity

2009-11-07T19:33:00.000-08:00

In class this week we learned about the beginnings of Christianity. Christianity started out with a very small cult following just like all of the religions that have appeared throughout history. St. Paul spread the word about Christianity to as many people as he could and made it available to all those who wanted to embrace it. Although St. Paul did great work kin promoting Christianity, the real acceptance of the religion came when Constantine the Great converted. St. Paul was instrumental in the first promotion and spread of Christianity but I have to wonder if the religion would have gained the same popularity and become so successful without Constantine the Great.

There is no question that Christianity could not exist without St. Paul and everything he did to promote the religion that he loved. Although this is true, I cannot help but wonder if Christianity would have gained the same status if it had not been adopted by Constantine. At the time, Constantine was such an influential person that people followed his example without question and his move to Christianity encouraged others to follow. When Constantine converted to Christianity he became the biggest supporter of the new religion. He donated a great amount of money for the building of churches and other holy needs and he also made Christians exempt from paying Roman taxes. He did everything he could to promote Christianity because he truly believed in it and he wanted to make sure that it reached as many people as possible. When his people saw how devoted he was to Christianity, they to accepted and adopted the religion.

Today Christianity is one of the most common religions in the world and this never could have happened without the work of St. Paul and the promotion from Constantine the Great.

The Battle of Thermopylae and Spartan Warfare

2009-11-07T13:04:00.000-08:00

The Infantry

The Greek infantry man was known as a hoplite. While most hoplites were citizens and had jobs, the Spartan hoplites only job was to be a soldier. A hoplites’ armor weighed 50 pounds and it was made out of bronze. There typically was a breastplate, helmet and graves. They carried a round shield known as a hoplon, that was made from wood and coated in bronze. The hoplon was one meter in diameter and would be supported on the shoulder of the hoplite and protect him from chin to knees. The hoplon weighed around 20 to 30 pounds. The main weapon of the hoplite was the doru, or spear. The doru was between seven and nine feet long, and held in one hand while the other held the shield. The tip of the doru was a curved leaf shape and the butt of it a spike known as a “lizard crusher.” The butt end was used as a weapon if the spear was snapped in half. If the doru was used underarm, the thrusts would have been under control but less powerful. If the thrusts were over arm, they would be more powerful but less under control. The secondary weapon of the hoplite was a short sward called a xiphos. The hoplites would use this as their last resort if their spear broke or if the phalanx broke ranks. If the enemies retreated the hoplites would drop their shields and spears and chase after them, with their xiphos. Hoplites did not use bows and arrows because they thought it to be cowardly.

The key to the hoplites success was the phalanx. The phalanx was a Greek rectangular military formation. The hoplites would get in close formation so each hoplites’ shield protected the person to their right. The first few rows of hoplites would project their spears over the top of the first row of soldiers. That meant that more than one row of soldiers could be active at once. Phalanxes would also have pushing matches, where the whole formation would push against the enemy trying to break their ranks. A typical phalanx was eight men across and sixteen men deep. The most dangerous spot was on the far right of the phalanx because you were not protected by your neighbors shield. The phalanx required a lot of trust and teamwork. You had to put the individual aside and work for the team, which Spartans excelled at. Even though this went against human nature of self preservation, the Spartans were more afraid of the law then dying.

The Battle

The Battle of Thermopylae occurred in August of 480 B.C. The Persians were trying to advance onto central Greece via the Thermopylae pass, the only road known to them. Leonidas and his Spartans tried to hold the pass long enough so Xerxes would be forced to leave for more food and supplies. But, Xerxes was not going to let a couple Spartans stand in his way of taking over the world. Plus, he had over two million soldiers with him, what did he have to fear, but a couple thousand Greeks. Xerxes built a bridge across Hellespont, which was made up of over 700 galleys and triremes, to cross into Greece. Leonidas picked 300 of his best soldiers, all with sons to carry on their family name, to meet Xerxes at Thermopylae. Along the way he was joined by 4,500 or so other Greek soldiers.

On the first day of the battle the Spartans did very well. The experienced Spartans would go forward and trick the Persian army into many traps. It is said the Xerxes leapt to his feet three times that day thinking his army was defeated. The next day was more of the same except the different Greek troops took turns defending the pass, giving the Spartans a break. Then Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks be telling Xerxes about the Anopaia path. Logically that night Xerxes sent a group of soldiers to attack the Greeks from behind. Luckily, Leonidas had sent a small amount of Greeks to defend the path; the Persians killed most of them though. When Leonidas was warned about the advancing Persians he sent all the Greeks away, except for the Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans. On the third day the Spartans moved forward into the widest part of the pass. Leonidas knew they were all going to die so he wanted to kill as many Persians as possible. Once Leonidas was killed the Greeks did everything they could to protect the body. After rushing the Greeks four times, the Persians finally controlled Leonidas’ body. After that the Persians from the Anopaia path descended on the remaining Greeks from the rear, they were surrounded. The Persians managed to kill all 300 Spartans and a thousand Greeks, while over 20,000 Persians were killed by the Greeks.

Links:

http://ezinearticles.com/?Ancient-Sparta---The-True-History-of-Leonidas-and-Thermopylae&id=1520920

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/271570/hoplite

A Viking Way of Life

2009-11-06T07:58:00.001-08:00

This week, I have decided to take a look at a people who lived long ago, and still remain well-known today. Over one thousand years ago, the Vikings encompassed a very remarkable culture that included many unique elements. What were their beliefs? What kinds of things did they value? What specific skills did they posses? How did these items develop? All of this made for an amazing culture; the Viking way of life.

Their religion is known as Northmen's Mythology. Similar to Greek mythology, the Vikings new numerous gods all pertaining to different aspects of creation and life. They fell into two groups; the Aesir which were gods of war and the Vanir, which were gods associated with love. Let's take a look at some specific viking gods.
Odin was the wisest god of the Aesir group. He was one-eyed and accompanied by two ravens that would inform him of the doings of the gods, giants, dwarfs, and men. It was said that he lost an eye in exchange for a drink from a sacred well full of knowledge.
Another being was Freya who was born a member of the Vanir gods. However, she married into the Aesirs by becoming Odin's wife. Accordingly, she became the goddess of love and fertility and of war and wealth. She possessed a famous necklace named Brisingamen which she received from the dwarfs by sleeping with them. She also had a cloak that allowed her to transform into a a bird, and a chariot that was driven by large cats.
From all of this, it is easy to see how the manner of Viking religion was exciting, like a thrilling story. However, the Vikings encountered a new religion, one that was spreading rapidly throughout the world.
Many Vikings had converted to Christianity by 1000CE. Very soon after, it was safe to consider any Viking as a Christian.

The language of the Vikings can still be seen in several languages today. For example, here are some words we find very familiar: anger, band, sky, happy, steak, and give. This is from Old Norse being closely related to Old English. It is fascinating to know that our cultures are linked in this way.
The ability to write for the Vikings was considered a very special skill. They believed their writing, known as runes, came directly from the gods. They did not write on paper with ink, rather they carved into wood or stone by means of knives and chisels. This influenced the letters to only be made using straight lines, giving them a distinct look.

Picture a Viking in your head. It is likely that we imagine a specific and unique object. In fact, the outward appearance of a viking today often includes them wearing a horned-helmet. However, this is the most famous misconception we have of their clothing and weapons. In reality, their close-quarters style of fighting would have made horned-helmets cumbersome and hazardous to their own comrades. Vikings used weapons such as a spear, scramseax, axe, and sword, the sword being the most prized.

These elements of Viking culture depict them as a stong and fascinating people. This is clearly the case as they were able to expand across the north Atlantic, even reaching the North American coast. Overall, they are certainly among the most extraordinary and adventurous culture in world history.

St. Paul and The Spread of Christianity

2009-11-05T08:39:00.000-08:00

During class we discussed the beginning of Christianity. St. Paul was responsible for much of the spread of this religion throughout the eastern Mediterranean. But today, Christianity is one of the most practiced religions. The start of St. Paul's journey begun when a fellow friend introduced him to Jesus and invited him to work at his side. St. Paul then went around the area and taught others one primate phrase, "The Lord is our God, one Lord." By this saying it gave the people around him a completely different approach to Christianity. The Romans at this time were mad because people were beginning to believe this phrase and were no longer praising their gods. Paul was very determined and knew that God was calling out to all people. It was unlikely that Paul really knew Jesus but his teachings were mostly focused on the fact that Jesus was resurrected and would soon return.

If it was not for St. Paul the world would not know about Jesus or Christianity. Today Christianity is the number one religion practiced, followed by Islam. St. Paul also wrote more than half of the New Testament. His hard work and teachings had a major impact on the world even today. His ideas and preachings gave the society a whole different approach to religion. Today in some churches St. Paul is prayed to and still being praised for his work. This website is one of the prayers for St. Paul.

Buddhism Today

2009-11-04T19:57:00.000-08:00

As we talked about in class, Buddhism is an ancient and well known religion that was created around 528 BC by Gautama Siddhartha, or “The Buddha” as a way to deviate from Hinduism. Buddhism at the creation was based on Buddhist Dharma that appealed to low class citizens and merchants, and it was an opportunity for anyone to achieve enlightenment. The Buddhist Dharma was based on 4 noble truths, and 8-fold path, and the ultimate stage of nirvana. Buddhism grew from it’s humble roots into a universal religion or salvation religion on the same ranks as Christianity.

Today however Buddhism has a different approach and different followers. With the fast paced world, high demands, and for some, no hope of salvation, many people have chosen to turn to Buddhism, or a form of Buddhism in order to achieve a sense of enlightenment and spiritual connection. Today there are many types of Buddhism, such as the authentic Buddhism, which is rare, religious Buddhism, which offers religion, Buddhism was not started as a religion but now has become one, philosophical Buddhism, in which Buddhist teaching are put into a philosophical context, and externalized Buddhism, which is a large deviation from the formal teachings that brings with it’s teaching ill intentions.

It is most common today however to see people using a lighter form of Buddhism, without formal teaching and readings as way to achieve their own version of inner peace. This practice could include meditation, yoga and breathing exercises as a way to connect to your inner being. Buddhist study groups can be found all over the world today along with meditation retreats in which individuals receive special training to guide them to self-empowerment. Overall the purpose of Buddhism has remained true to the spirit of the religion, yet it has been altered to work with the current hussel and bussel of life in the present.

http://www.amtb.org.tw/E-BUD/releases/4kinds.htm

Overview of Sacred Texts

2009-11-04T13:37:00.000-08:00

The past few weeks I have focused mainly on discussing religions. Continuing the pattern, I thought it would interesting to learn more about what is truly behind some of these religions. If a person is religious, he mostly likely follows and reads a sacred text. The sacred texts contain the central idea(s) of each religion. As a religious person myself, I think without a text there is no solid ground for a religion to build off of, so there is not a reason for religions to exist. For this reason, I find it interesting to discover the history behind these texts.

Some of the oldest known religious texts, Pyramid texts found in Ancient Egypt, date back to 2400 BCE. Another text that dates back to about 2000 BCE is the Epic of Gilgamesh written by Gilgamesh for Sumarians.

The more popular religions in today’s society, Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, have their own sacred texts as well.

Buddhism originated in India and spread throughout Asia and much of the current world. In fact, Buddhism was my ancestors’ religion, and to this very day it influences me to some degree. Buddhist texts include the Buddhavacana and other texts with aspects from the Sutras or Sanskrit, a former text. The main aspect of this sacred text discusses what Buddha thought a life consists of. Buddha argues that an individual’s spirit is in an endless cycle of life and death (reincarnation). In order to end this cycle, one must simply follow Buddha’s teachings and follow the path that he laid out. First, one must meditate, understand the Four Noble Truths , and follow the Noble Eightfold Path that Buddha presented. Eventually, when the individual accomplishes this task, they will be in a stage known as nirvana (no suffering). The sacred texts describe and aid individuals in this process to reach nirvana.

Christianity and its relatives affect United States citizens the most because it is the most popular form of religion. More specifically, being a student from a West Michigan school, Christianity shaped me to be the person I am. Through the Bible , Christians learn what it means to be alive, how to live life on earth, and what afterlife consists of. The Bible consists of two sections, the New Testament and Old Testament. The Old Testament originated from Hebrew scripture and is a collection of books written prior to the life of Jesus. The main difference between the two is organization and division of material. The life and teachings of Jesus, found in the New Testament, drives the religion and discusses the Christian life. Within the New Testament, the life of Jesus Christ and his teachings strikes individuals, making them believers. Lessons vary in difficulty, some as easy as not lying and others having multiple and deeper meanings. Those who dedicate their lives in following the word of Christ enjoy an afterlife in Heaven.

These are not the only sacred texts. For more information on the previously mentioned texts and other texts, visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_text.

The Silk Road

2009-11-01T07:18:00.000-08:00

The Silk Road was a series of land and also sea routes that connected Central Asia to East Asia. These routes were localized meaning many trades took place throughout the entire road, it was rare for one to travel the entire length of the Silk Road because it was also very dangerous. The Silk Road is a prime example of cross-cultural contact in our world's history. Cental Asia and East Asia both had their own cultural tradiations and own beliefs but because of the Silk Road much of these cultral beliefs were spread throughout the entire region. Products, realgions, trades, and ideas arouse from the use of the Silk Road. The picture below shows the path of the Silk Road along with certain ideas, and products that were traded between cultures.

I feel that even today each society, encluding America, has their own "Silk Road." Meaning that countries have their own way of spreading different ideas and trends throughout the country. For example, California is usually the first one to adpot new styles and eventually it migrates east and in time the majority of the country has now adapted this new style. Although, America does not have a distinct pathway for these trends it just seems to travel east with word of mouth.

http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/SilkRoad-map.jpg

Traveling The Silk Road

2009-10-31T19:19:00.000-07:00

It seems like everyone today is talking about the global economy, and how we are all connected by the products that we consume. When did this global economy come about though? The first roots of it can be traced back over 2,000 years, to the silk road. 2,000 years ago there weren't things such as email, telephone, and large commercial cargo ships. Then how could it be possible to transport good from Asia across Europe and vise versa? Well, first of all merchants didn't travel the whole length of the road. They had their small trade routes and through trading with other merchants goods would eventually end up across the continent.

Traveling along the silk road could be difficult and take a lot of time without vehicles. There were three main modes of transportation back then: by foot, by horse, and by wagon. By wagon was the slowest of all three modes. A wagon could only go about 20 miles in a day but could carry by far the largest amounts of goods. The next fastest was by horse, but it was only fast if the horses were switched every few hours because the horses would be come tired and need to be fed. The fastest mode of transportation was walking; a fast walker could easily cover 25 miles in a day.

To me it seems unimaginable that goods could travel so far back then with the limited transportation and communication technologies. Although these goods were traveling much further than their makers realized, even before the silk road. The silk road just enhanced the capabilities and speed of this travel. The silk road was just the first of many economic advancements to a world economy.

Links:

http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/38697701/Modes-of-Travel

Photo Credits:

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/silkroad/silkroad1.gif&imgrefurl=http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/silkroad/&usg=__0HK5FaJqwazOLqe6blmA5O0sduQ=&h=302&w=350&sz=52&hl=en&start=11&um=1&tbnid=3OzLNGdEdosHFM:&tbnh=104&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dsilk%2Broad%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1

Commodity Branding

2009-10-31T10:34:00.000-07:00

Commodity branding is widely viewed as a historically distinctive feature of the modern global economy, identifying such things as kinship and class. Commodity branding has been dated back to the Urban Revolution in Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium BC bringing uniqueness and a brand name to cross culturally traded goods. This article, written by David Wengrow looks at commodity branding across time, from ancient history to the present. He talks about how brands signal products and tap into the emotions and desires of the consumer to answer personal needs. I feel that this is true of the present branding methods, when people see a brand symbol, such as golden arches or a swoosh they are reminded of a need or a want. Branding can be seen with the emergence of hieroglyphic writing in Egypt. The growth of long distance trade in history brought about the need for branding products to make the product more individualized. Stone seals were used as a form of setting one product apart from another during the Halaf Period and were discovered across northern Mesopotamia. These distinguishing seals were applied to the clay sealing of mobile containers such as pots, baskets, and sacks. The shapes of the seals vary by region but many of them resemble animal bones and teeth or human body parts. These old forms of sealing and branding can be seen in present forms of advertising and gift-wrapping, take for example current methods of standardizing goods and labors.

The article goes on to talk about the beginning of the fourth millennium and the lowland societies acting as a port of labor and capital. This region drew on other surrounding regions new productive settings of packaging products in an original way. These processes led to the emergence of competing cultural networks across northern and eastern Mesopotamia to be the most productive and original. Production and packaging grew throughout the region and clay stoppers were used as a marking in a distinctive way to distinguish local stamp seals.

Specialization in production can be seen throughout history, such as on the ancient silk road where many cultures set themselves apart by offering unique to their region products and by packaging them in distinct manners that make them distinguishable and for the finer products, highly south after.

This can be seen today as I had mentioned above all across the industrialized world, what makes name brand products better then non-name brand, and what makes one product good and another poor, and did the people of ancient civilizations base their buying and trading practices the same way we do today? Is it just part of being human to want to have the best of the best? And from the most distant land?

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/523676?cookieSet=1

Islam Reaches the East

2009-10-31T09:43:00.000-07:00

Buddhism and Islam were the two main religions that spread to China as a result of the Silk Road. The Silk Road, as suggested by its name, was a trade route primarily for silk. However, many other items and ideas were traded along this pathway including items such as metals, spices, tools, and animals. In order for this trading to occur, merchants moved from city to city bringing their items and ideas. Most merchants did not travel great distances because of security purposes which means the items and ideas that traveled great distances must have been passed on through several merchants and travelers.

One of the ideas that traveled great distances was the Islamic faith. Islam, founded by Muhammad, came from Mecca which is located in current day Saudi Arabia. Islam’s fundamental teaching is following God’s word. The five important aspects of this religion include faith, prayer, fasting, sharing, and pilgrimage.

Visit http://gallery.sjsu.edu/silkroad/religion.htm or http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam or http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_china to read more on the Islamic faith and its influence on China. The distance traveled by this religion is great in magnitude and has become great in importance. Today, Islam dominates many parts of China and is one the major religions besides Buddhism.

It is without a doubt that the creation of The Silk Road was an important aspect in history because of its influence on today’s society. Islam and Buddhism might have never reached China without The Silk Road. Without Buddhism and Islam, China might not be the country that it is today.

The Spread of Buddhism Through the Silk Road

2009-10-30T13:32:00.000-07:00

As the name suggests, the Silk Road was instrumental in the trade of silk but it was also instrumental in the expansion of trade to many different countries and cultures in Asia. This was a revolutionary system that provided people with goods that they never could have encountered without traveling thousands of miles. People used the the Silk Road to trade many goods but it also facilitated the trade of cultural ideas, practices and religions. In particular the Silk Road was a major factor in the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia.

The Silk Road was instrumental in opening the world to new and different cultures as well as goods. During this time Buddhism spread like wildfire among merchants who traveled the Silk Road. Beginning in India, Buddhism made its way throughout Central and Eastern Asia and eventually Northern China. With Buddhism originating in India it shows just how far the Silk Road stretched and how the spread of ideas worked during this period in history. The spread of Buddhism throughout Asia shows how appealing it was to the many merchants who came into contact with it. Buddhism was an entirely new religion that appealed to merchants because it was a form of Brahmin-dominated Hinduism. Eventually the spread of Buddhism moved away from the Silk Road and was taken over by Buddhist monks who wanted to spread the message to those who were not reached by the Silk Road.

There is no question that Buddhism would have spread and become available to different cultures at some point, but without the Silk Road Buddhism never would have been cemented into world history. No one could have predicted that the Silk Road would be such a huge part of world history, but it forever changed the way goods and cultural messages moved throughout the world.

Connecting Worlds: The Silk Road

2009-10-28T07:18:00.000-07:00

Before such an element of cross-cultural contact came about, trade was quite different for the most part. The majority of exchange only consisted of limited networks within a culture. However, through specific instances, bridges and connections developed, creating a vast network of trade, by land and by sea, reaching the corners of the Asian continent. This is known as the Silk Road.

Let us examine what contributed to its development. Basically, the land routes were opened by the Chinese. At the time, China was constantly struggling in conflict with the Xiongnu nomads of Mongolia. The emperor Han Wudi therefore sent an ambassador by the name of Zhang Qian on a mission to find allies to assist in the struggle. Zhang Qian was not entirely successful in his assignment, as he was away for several years, being captured by the Xiongnu on more than one occasion. Nevertheless, his travels brought important knowledge back to the emporer. Zahng Qian realized that there were Chinese products in the far away markets of the West. Han Wudi was very intrigued by this. Around 100 BCE, he basically invaded and pacified a large area of central Asia which allowed direct trade connections to be formed over the land.

The large states of the time supported these routes, building roads, promoting communication, and patrolling the routes. But what kinds of items traveled these connections? From the name, it is clear that Silk very significant. Some cultures used it to wrap their dead in for burial. Others considered it very fine material for important religious occasions. Along with silk, spices were a popular commodity for trade. This included cloves, nutmeg from southeast Asia, and peppers from India. Cotton textiles, pearls, choral, and ivory also came from India. From the West, items such as horses were traded. The Romans sent things like glass, jewelery, pottery, wine, gold, and silver.

The Silk road did not function as you might imagine. What I mean is, people did not literally travel the road with various items to trade. Rather, the items were traded from merchant to merchant, over and over again. This is how they made it over the large area that the routes included. But it was not limited to just goods that were spread throughout the land. Even more impacting, ideas, cultures, and religion traveled it as well. Examples of the this are Christianity and Mahayana Buddhism. Imagine how significant this activity was in the development of the entire world of the day. What kinds of elements of your own life can you relate to this idea? Perhaps your religion? Or even the food you eat?

Religion in Africa

2009-10-25T16:10:00.000-07:00

In modern society, Africa is considered one of the poorest nations. Much of the nations lives in absolute poverty as well as somehow being affected by the AIDS pandemic. With the lack of food and clean water, the modern day plague, and the ever present fear of natural disasters, why would Africans even want to get out of bed?

I believe that much of what influences the Africans to continue on with life is their religion. Although the greatest population of Africa calls themselves Christian, other religions include Islam, Hinduism, Baha'i, Judaism, Buddhism, as well as other African traditional religions.

Africans look to the church as a rescue from the terrors they deal with in their daily lives. The church is what brings them help in the form of schools and hospitals as well as through helping provide food and clean drinking water. Through the hospitals, many Africans receive prescriptions for common illnesses as well as ones to help with AIDS. The church provides a way of global communication as well as general improvement for the people. Without the church, religious help in general, the Africans would be left to fend for themselves and just live in the place and in the way they have. Individual religions bring hope for something more and something better to the people who suffer in Africa.

Much of the history of religion has been lost or misinterpreted due to the fact that it was recorded by racist Europeans, but we have to look at what was recorded and what there is now in order to understand how it is that the Africans still have a positive outlook on life despite what downfalls they have been dealt.

Education in Africa

2009-10-24T15:12:00.000-07:00

I am sure I was not the only American that as a child dreamed of not having to go to school any more and counted down the days to Christmas and spring break. Education is something that we take for granted here, in America. We do not realize how lucky we are to be forced to go to school. In other countries, such as Africa, children’s biggest dreams are to be able to go to school and be educated. Which is something most children in Africa do not get to experience. There are over 46 million children in Africa that have never even been in a classroom and 40% of school aged children do not attend school. How can this be you may ask, it is because a lack of classrooms, teachers, supplies, and ultimately monetary funds.

While education in Africa is not as good as it should be, it is much better than it was. Recently there has been a large initiative toward increasing the amount of children who attend school. Many countries, the World Bank and International Monetary Fund have all increased aid to African countries for educational purposes. There are also many private donations, for example Oprah Winfrey has built a school for girls in South Africa.

Even with the building of school houses there is still a problem of educating the students. Since most people in past generations were not educated it can be hard to find teachers. The low amount of teachers and high amount of students makes the student to teacher ratio 44-1, on average. In some areas the student teacher ratio is as high as 126-1. The Africa Education Initiative is helping to increase the amount of teachers; in 2003 they trained over 8,000 new teachers and over 16,000 existing teachers.

The education system in Africa is not hopeless though. As Africa continues to develop the education system will develop with it and also help Africa develop from having better educated citizens.

Source Links:

http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/sectors/ed/index.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/29/world/africa/29iht-mali.4051275.html

Poverty--Not just one definition.

2009-10-23T08:39:00.000-07:00

Defined in the Websters Dictionary, poverty is "the state of one who lacks usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions." This definition seems simple, but in reality it is much more complex. In order to understand the aspects of poverty it may be helpful to look at two extremes: one of the wealthiest nations, America, and the absolute poorest, Sub-Saharan Africa.

Even though America is a wealthy nation, poverty is still present. According to the US census about one in eight live below the poverty line-- which means an annual income of about $20,000 for a family of four. About thirteen percent of the United States population is living on this budget. Many of these people are out living on the streets begging for someone to help them.

Even though poverty is America is a very real issue, it seems to have a more extreme case in the Sub-Saharan Africa. One poor African gives the perfect definition for poverty in their culture...

"...Poverty is not going empty for a single day and getting something to eat the next day. Poverty is going empty with no hope for the future... Poverty is watching your mothers, fathers, brothers and sisters die in pain and in sorrow just because they couldn't get something to eat... Poverty is watching your own children and grandchildren die in your arms but there is nothing you can do... Poverty is when you hide your face and wish nobody could see you just because you feel less than a human being. Poverty is when you dream of bread and fish and you never see in the day light... Poverty never sleeps. Poverty works all day and night. Poverty never takes a holiday."-- One Poor African

This is something Americans do not and will not experience. The Sub-Saharan culture is completely different than the Americans. So when poverty is talked about there are two different aspects to this simple name. There are many different explanations for why this society is so poor. Many feel they have not become "westernized" enough. Their technology, courts and other aspects that are necessary to maintain a stable society have not been established. This problem leads to another possible reasoning for their extreme poverty; they are unable to compete with these more industrialized nations. No matter what happens there are always nations that are stronger and contain more international power than Sub-Saharan Africa has. The question is what can be done to solve this dilemma? Is there anything that is able to resolve this extreme poverty-- or is it a lost cause?

www.nacsw.org/Publications/Proceedings2006/RoeKSSAandextremepovertyE.pdf

www.heritage.org/Research/Welfare/bg1713.cfm

In the Spotlight for AIDS is Sub-Saharan Africa

2009-10-22T13:09:00.000-07:00

One of Africa's most severe problems is the overwhelming presence of AIDS. In fact, an astounding 67 percent of the world's population with HIV reside in sub-Saharan Africa. This amounts to over 22 million people spread throughout the region, being the countries south of the Sahara. The 2008 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic reported that an estimated 1.9 million people were newly infected with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa in the previous year. It is obvious that this is a large scale issue easily grabs the world's attention. One would hope that it receives much aid along with this.

AIDS Orphan Relief Effort

There is strong evidence for the cruelty of this disease. In some of the sub-Saharan countries, the life expectancy has fallen below 40 years but without the effect from AIDS, it would still be above 60 years. As a result, millions of children are orphaned. In a larger view, these deaths have awful effects on communities and economies.
Thankfully, the world is responding. The two largest organizations are the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria and PEPFAR, which is by the United States. PEPFAR has called for 15 billion dollars from the U.S. government to go towards AIDS relief, and therefore will greatly benefit sub-Saharan Africa. The funding works to prevent 12 million new HIV infections, provide care for 12 million already infected people, including 5 million orphans, and to train at least 140,000 health care workers.
This demonstrates America's support of sub-Saharan Africa. As a region in need, it is relying on countries such as the U.S. for help.

References:
HIV Insight.
http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/global?page=cr09-00-00

Avert. Averting HIV and AIDS
http://www.avert.org/aids-africa-questions.htm

Rituals of Sub-Saharan Africa

2009-10-22T12:08:00.000-07:00

Spiritual beliefs have always been an interest of mine, as mentioned in my previous post, so I thought it would be interesting to discuss the beliefs of Sub-Saharan Africans.
Africans, like many other civilizations, have a way to deal with “tough times” and understand the meaning of life. This process or belief is known as divination for Sub-Saharan Africans. The origin of this belief originated from China during the twelfth century BCE. Divination has many different forms, but all forms of practice have the same central idea, the search for the meaning of life and understanding suffering and death.
Much like many forms of religion, divination is practiced on a regular basis. For many Sub-Saharan Africans, divination is a daily aspect of their lives. Diviners or friction oracle are the religious leaders who individuals may bring questions and concerns to.
The difference in the form of divination comes to play when looking at what or who is involved in worship. For instance, the Azande of southern Sudan confront benge to address questions of adultery or sorcery and confronting iwa to determine if witchcraft has been used against them. Among the Luba people, the friction device known as kakishi (a small, carved wooden object held by the individual and diviner) is used. The movements of the object provide answers to the individual’s questions. Also, in the Luba culture, a form of divination involving the sacred gourd is used. In this instance, the diviner would mix a variety of natural and manufactured objects together and interpret the configuration formed by the objects. Animals are also used in divination. In a few cultures, mice and spiders are observed, and the random movements will answer the individual’s questions.
Visit http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/oracle/essayPemberton.html to read more about the divination previously mentioned and other forms of divination. The website also contains links that display interesting artifacts and objects that are used in divination.

Cross Cultures

2009-10-17T15:28:00.000-07:00

“If you can’t see that your own culture has it’s own set of interests, emotions, and biases, how can you expect to deal successfully with someone else’s culture?” This question, put so eloquently by author Anne Fadiman in her book, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, was the centerpiece of the book. The clash of western medicine in the plains of California and the medical and religious practices of the refugee Hmong immigrants was doomed from the beginning. The Hmong who chose this Californian settlement to be closer together as a family and a clan had no idea what they were in for when one of their own started to have convulsions, or as the Hmong saw it, the spirit catches you, and you fall down.

Learning the ways of the Hmong culture, both in their natural environment in the highlands and mountains of Laos, as well as their culture transfer from Laos to the small county of Merced California was very eye opening. I learned about journeys such as theirs in class and from television and textbooks, however I had never felt so much a part of it as I did when I was reading The Spirit Catches You.

The journey to the US, to a land the Hmong people thought was “free,” ended up leaving most families unhappy and with little life satisfaction. The Hmong way of life was stripped from them, yet they still were Hmong and continued to practice what ceremonies and rituals they could, such as sacrifices and healings by a txiv neeb. The Hmong in many ways did what they could to resist the culture change, which I thought was very interesting and uncharacteristic for many immigrants that I have come into contact with over the years. Many of the Hmong did not learn English and depended on the younger and newer generations as well as hired interpreters to translate for them. Many of the Hmong also did not bother to learn to drive, and of those who did many would cheat on the written driving test by embroidering the answers on their clothing. The main reason I found the book to highlight for why a Hmong man or woman would even learn to drive would be in order to stay in close contact with their family and clan. Hmong people also learned to use the phone to solely communicate with other Hmong. The outside community had to conform to what the Hmong immigrants needed, such as interpreters, government aide, employment training, and free health care for all refugees. I have seen many international citizens, mainly from Mexico, who came to America to work. The Mexicans I have worked with on the other hand, compared to the Hmong, seem to put more effort into learning English and conforming to the role of a US citizen. The Hmong had a sense of resistance and group solidarity that could not be broken, even if someone was on the other side of the country.

While the Hmong did have a sense of still being Hmong, they were still depressed and unhappy. I thought much about this and I can see how they would be upset at the fact that in the US we make everything pre-packaged and easily accessed, but in the Hmong way of life each person in the clan and immediate family a role to be into to, and a duty to their people which gave them a purpose in life. As described by Anne Faidman a typical day as a Hmong farmer in the Laos mountains, each part of the day was devoted to a task, and everything the family consumed, wore and lived in was made and harvested by the family. A sense of peace and freedom must have come from that which very few could hope to experience.

With the Hmong lifestyle centered around taking care of family, by harvesting their own food and selling opium, not for money but for silver and other ceremony enriching goods to impress spirits and call back souls, it is no wonder the clash of cultures was so drastic. The Hmong in Merced California proved to be as ignorant as the doctors at MCMC when it came to understanding each other. Neither party seemed to grasp the concept that both parties viewed the other as the inferior of the pair, and inferior simply because they were different. Of the great tragedies the Hmong people went through to get to escape Laos and cross the border into refugee camps, and eventually resettlement in US and other countries around the world, it was mind boggling to me that the thing they most feared about the US was the doctors’. For Hmong medicine is their religion, and for them it is believed that illness can be blamed by soul loss or past transgressions of the parents, it is not seen as the patient’s fault. Western medicine has no cure for sole loss or any way to prevent dabs from harming people, well no cure that I have heard about. The cultural ignorance and lack of effort put forth both by some of the doctors at Merced and the Hmong community ultimately led to the harm of some patients. I felt guilty when reading this book for my ignorance of other cultures and I hope that if I am put in a cross- cultural misunderstanding I will do my best to incorporate their knowledge along with my own.

World Religion: An Overview

2009-10-17T13:12:00.000-07:00

While I do not consider myself a very religious person, religion is something that has always fascinated and intrigued me. Over 80% of the world's population considers themselves religious, religion is a big part of most people's lives. With estimates of over 4,000 different religions in the world it can be a confusing topic. It can also be a confusing topic when it comes to what religions came first and when they started.

Here is a video of the spread the first religions throughout the world. http://www.mapsofwar.com/ind/history-of-religion.html

Even though tribal people had different types of religious practices and spiritual rituals, Hinduism is the world's oldest organized religion, with Judaism following. Then Christianity and Islam were born from Judaism. These are still the main religions today. Among the other larger religions are: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Jainism.
For information on the different types of religions and a comparison go to: http://www.religionfacts.com/big_religion_chart.htm

Different religions practice different things but they can be broken down into different sub-groups.
There is monotheism which is the belief in one God, polytheism which is the belief in many Gods, and pantheism which is a belief that all is God.
http://www.allaboutreligion.org/origin-of-religion.htm

The "Big Four" religions are all very similar and different at the same time. Hinduism has no known founder or year of origin, but it is known that it was developed in India. Hindu is not just a religion it is a cultural system too. The Vedas is the oldest book of Hindu and lays out the foundation of it. Judaism was originated in 1300 B.C.E. by Abraham, who was the first Hebrew. The Tanakh or Torah is the religious book of Hindu. Christianity comes from Judaism and the holy book is the Bible. Christianity is broken down into many smaller groups such as: Catholic, Protestant, Methodist, to name a few. Islam also originated from Judaism; the Qur'an is the holy book. Muhammad is known as the prophet of Islam he was not just a religious leader, he was also a political and military leader.

Alexander the Great--- or not so great?

2009-10-17T11:45:00.000-07:00

Alexander the Great is known all around then world, but are people really aware of what he actually did and the characteristics he possessed? Alexander the Great lived a very short but yet very fulfilled life. Alexander was only thirty-two when he died and much of his life was spent in battles. There were three major battles that Alexander and his army were able to win. The first battle he won was the Battle of Granicus, the second was the Battle of Issus, and the third major battle was the Battle of Gaugamela. During these battles many lives were lost and Alexander still wanted to continue on his expedition. Although Alexander the Great was a very powerful and determined king it is debatable whether or not Alexander the Great was really all that Great. Alexander the Great's theory was that he wanted to conquer the entire world. And who really wants a ruler with those intentions?

Once Alexander conquered a city, many of those cities were named after Alexander the Great himself. It seems to me that he wanted every ounce of power he was able to get a hold of and his armies following him did not really mean that much to Alexander. In the latter battles his armies finally convinces Alexander the Great that their many conquers were enough and that it was time to head back to the beginning of their expedition. If this were to not have happened Alexander the Great may have actually conquered the entire world, just as he had planned to. If he would have in fact conquered the entire world he would have an extreme amount of power. Probably too much power for one person to possess. Having one ruler with too much power would also lead to many other issues, such as, trying to overthrow him as a ruler, and Alexander trying to control every aspect of every ones lives. Too much power is not always a good thing, and I do not think Alexander realized how much power he would really receive.

Personally, I feel that even though he may have led on that he wanted to continue and would not stop until he had rule over all that nations, this may not be entirely true. After the many battles Alexander later died. His body was growing tired from too many battles, and during the end of the battles I think he was ready to be done even though he did not allow anyone to know that.

Alexander was a strong-willed man and he did achieve some of his many goals he had set. He may not be as great as many people say he is, though. With some more knowledge about the details of his life I think many will re-think his ever so popular name.

"Double Extra Large World History!"

2009-10-17T09:39:00.000-07:00

Have you ever considered what people are actually referring to when the term "history" is used? Is it the history of a certain nation, person, or culture? Or even the history of our world? It seems as though most of the time, "history" is not including all that it can. We overlook and forget about tremendous events that are all a significant part of how we have came to the point we are at today. You see, we divide history into several periods and often only consider the latest of these. For example, what is known as Small World History only encompasses the last 5000 years, the start of civilization, or the invention of writing. However, I'd like to reflect on the big picture, all the way back to the beginning of the universe. The following include events from over the last 13 billion years, what is called Big History.

The Big Bang
Visit this interactive time line to explore the origins of the universe. The effects of a single event happening over 13 billion years ago are still occurring today. Out of an extremely hot explosion, expanding faster than the speed of light from the size of an atom came the beginning of time, space, matter, and energy. Continue exploring the time line for a chronicle of Big History.
http://www.johnkyrk.com/evolution.html

The Beginning of the Earth
Dig deeper! What actually allowed our world to exist? How did the Solar System fall into place? Over millions of years, the survivors of the millions of collisions occurring beforehand settled into their orbits. Presently, the planets maintain respective distances from our center star, leading to the reasoning behind Bode's Law, for all of you scientists.
http://novan.com/solar.htm

The Great Permian Extinction
Learn about the Earth's most severe extinction event. Over 90% of every living thing disappears, but what caused this catastrophe? How did we go on to recover from this loss?
http://dsc.discovery.com/videos/dinosaurs-permian-extinction-death-and-life.html

The Super-Continent
Imagine the earth as one large land mass surrounded by one vast sea. This is the case hundreds of millions of years ago. The land mass is known ad Pangaea, with Panthalassa as the resulting enormous sea. Explore how the continents arrive in their present location over time.
http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/antarctica/ideas/gondwana2.html

Put it into Perspective
A key concept to understanding Big History is realizing the vast time periods that it includes. Furthermore, examining the lengths of these periods relative to more familiar times can be quite astonishing. Look at the history of the universe in a one-year calendar representation in order to get a sense of how long ago these events happened. What is the most shocking to you?
http://school.discoveryeducation.com/schooladventures/universe/itsawesome/cosmiccalendar/page2.html

These events throughout the past billions of years have clearly helped determine our present state. Can you think of any other significant elements of Big History?

Ancient India: Religion

2009-10-16T19:05:00.000-07:00

Religion has always been a part of my life in one form or another. After this week’s discussion on Ancient India, I found that the religion aspect was interesting and did further research.
India, unlike many ancient societies, connected their people through an elaborate cultural system which includes religion. Religiously, Indians followed The Varna which translates to the colors. This is a good description because within The Varna there are four divisions: the Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Sudra. Each of these divisions acted as a social class as well as religious class. The Brahmin consisted of people such as priests. Those who were leaders and warriors were considered Kshatriya. The Vaishya consisted of merchants and farmers, and the Sudras were the laborers. Another main aspect of this religion is reincarnation. In this case, an individual will be reincarnated into the next caste system (social class) if his life consisted of good deeds. However, I have always questioned the fact of reincarnation because people typically do not remember a life prior to their current one. On the other hand, there have been instances where a “reincarnated person” has an interest on the items in the prior life. This also raises the issue of chance. What if by chance this person happens to have the same interests? I have also pondered the thought of souls. In this case, the soul must pass Brahmin to achieve “eternal rest” (nirvana). Is nirvana like heaven? Is this life truly better than life on earth? Does a soul have to wait after a death to find a new body? Unfortunately, these questions and many others still do not have an answer. With every religion there are questionable beliefs to them such as the questions I have presented. However, Ancient India, built mainly on this religion instead of education and government like other societies, kept their society strong for years. For this reason, I think religion should be important in every culture.

Hammurabi's Code

2009-10-06T20:43:00.000-07:00

My goal after graduating from GVSU is to go to law school and become a lawyer, I am of course interested in anything that has to do with law and politics. I am always interested in learning new things about our laws, but I have never really thought the laws of the past. When I read the section, in the Reilly text, about Hammurabi’s code I was very interested. It is amazing to think that almost four thousand years ago the first laws were being written, but it is not surprising because the first cities where emerging then too. When there are large populations of people living close together there is a need for structure and leadership. Hammurabi lead his people by creating the first laws and keep a relative amount of peace.

Some of Hammurabi’s laws are fairly obvious for example, “If a man has taken a wife and has not executed a marriage contract, that woman is not a wife.” That same idea is still a law today and makes sense still. There is a law in the Code that says if you break into a house you will be put to death and buried in front of that house. Well, that law does not make one sense to me and is thankfully not a law today. If someone were to break into my house, I do not think they deserve to die for it and I certainly do not want them buried in front of my house either. Then there are a lot of Hammurabi’s law that are irrelevant today, for example the laws about slaves.

It is crazy to think that some of the laws that govern our everyday lives were written thousands of years ago. It shows how important laws are for our society to function civilly. It shows that the past, history, still impacts our lives greatly. Even history from thousands of years ago still can teach us a lot

Greek Religion

2009-10-04T19:52:00.000-07:00

In our discussions about ancient Greece during class, I find that I am very interested in this culture. I am particularly drawn to the religious aspect of the culture more than anything else. I have always been interested in religions other than my own, so I always want to learn more.
As humans, we are always seeking something more, something bigger than what we have. This can be seen all the way back to the ancient Greeks. As one of the earlier civilizations, they had sense that there is more to life than what can be seen easily. They filled in what they did not know with their gods.
The Greeks built temples for their gods and goddesses; one of the most well known temples, Delphi, was built in honor of Apollo. Pericles built a temple for the goddess Athena, goddess of wisdom and war. These temples, along with others, were places for the ancient Greeks to go to perform sacrifices, ask for guide, and places of celebration.
So much of the life of the Greeks revolved around the gods and goddesses and their dichotomy. For the god Apollo, there was his brother Dionysus. Apollo represented rationality, amongst other things, where Dionysus was the god of irrationality. For everything in their world, there was an opposite. Everything had balance, and everything was important. The athletic ceremonies of the Greeks heavily involved a religious aspect. The competitions involved sacrifices with great praises to the gods. Winners of the competitions wore laurel on their heads. Laurel comes from Daphne, a human who was pursued by Apollo. She was intimidated by the god since she was only human, and wanted a way out. Daphne asked Zeus for a way to disappear, so he turned her into a laurel tree. It is myths like this that find their way into the daily lives of the Greeks.
Gods played such a huge role not only in private lives, but in politics as well. When citizens were thought to not believe in the gods, or to dishonor them, often they were put to death. Considering that the Greeks had the first democracy, it seems off that religion would play a role in the politics at all. In our world now there is a clear separation of religion and state, which works. I think that the only reason that the Greeks could depend heavily on their gods in politics is that the entire Greek population shared the same religion. If we tried to lean on religion now, there would be chaos due to the myriad of religions we have in this country.
Over time, the Greek gods and goddesses have been turned into myths and central roles for Disney movies. Something that was so important in the lives of the citizens of ancient Greece has now been turned into a means of entertainment in our modern lives.

Ancient Greek Influence on Modern-Day American Politics

2009-10-04T19:33:00.000-07:00

To this day there is one civilization in world history that has been more influential to American politics than all of the rest. The Direct Democratic system developed by the Ancient Greeks had a huge influence on the government style that America uses today. I thought it was very interesting to learn about the type of politics that Ancient Greece practiced and how some aspects are still practiced today. Unlike the centralized rule that the Persian Empire used, the Ancient Greek Empire was made up of city states that relied heavily on citizen participation in politics.

The idea of citizenship was an entirely new way of governing an empire at the time. Many non-Greeks during this period could not understand why there was a need for the common people to have a say in how government issues were handled. Ancient Greece paved the way for the representative democratic style of government that is practiced by many countries today, including America. Much like how voting rights started out in America, originally only the wealthy land owners were allowed to vote and call themselves citizens, but soon all men were allowed to have a vote and a voice in their city-state's politics.

In the Greek city-state of Athens they employed the use of an Assembly where all citizens could freely participate in the political proceedings of the city-state. Eventually all members of the Greek Assembly were elected to their positions by the citizens that they represented and were paid for their work in the public office, the same way that we elect public officials today.

The Greek system of direct democracy was an entirely new concept when it was created, and a brilliant one as indicated by its continued presence in politics today. I cannot imagine what America's government would be like without the influence of the Ancient Greek's Direct Democracy.

Raptorex: Shaking our Foundations

2009-10-03T13:46:00.000-07:00

Knowing who and what come before humans did, and knowing who and what our ancestors roamed the earth with really interested me and so when I heard about this new discovery on NPR I realized just how little we know about the past, and that our search for answers to the past may never be complete.

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112925703

NPR had a segment a few weeks ago; it got my attention because they were talking about a new species that was discovered. The discovery was of fossils of a dinosaur, the segment was entitled “Even T rex Started Small.” First a little background about the well known T-rex, The body type of a Tyrannosaurs rex is very unique, with a very large head, large body, and very small arms in proportion to it’s body. The T-Rex has been made into the king and the most vicious killer in the Cretaceous period, 68-65 million year ago, Rex, translating into King.” The T-rex weighed an average of 6.8 metric tons and stood approximately 13 meters.

Fossils of the Raptorex kriegsteni, named after the individual who purchased the fossils after the discovery, were found in China that dates back to 125 million years ago, long before the T-rex. The fossils resemble an almost exact miniature version of the body shape of the T-rex, yet it measures at 1/90^th- 1/100^th the size of the T-rex, standing at 9 feet tall and weighing the size of an average human. Judging by the body shape of the Raptorex it is now said to be the blueprint of a predator. It was originally thought that the fossil remains were those of a baby T-rex, but further examination revealed that the growth of the bones and fusion of the growth plates show that it was at least 5 years old at the time of death. The dating of the fossils also revealed that the Raptorex was much older then the T-rex, approximately 60-35 million years older, suggesting that the Raptorex may have evolved over millions of years into the T-rex.

This discovery has given paleontologists a new insight into the creatures that roamed the land before humans, as well as an idea of what it meant to be a predator in that era. The most interesting part of this discovery is that a fossil like this, or suggesting that a dinosaur of this type existed, has never before been discovered. I feel that this discovery, which was so unexpected and changed what we thought we had known about the period, has made me realize just how little we know about the past, and what we could still discover. I also feel however that the chances of paleontologists finding more fossils that change what we thought we knew about the past are slim, in part because of the uniqueness of the fossils, and because of the urbanization and desertification taking place all over the world, covering the stomping ground of our ancient ancestors and predators.

Walking on Your Ancestor(s)

2009-10-03T11:36:00.000-07:00

The thought of walking and living on the very ground that loved ones were buried sparked my interest.
One of the first few Neolithic settlements, known as Çatalhöyük, buried and lived on their ancestors. The Neolithic people were the first group of people who began to grow their own plants and domesticate animals. As they moved away from the nomadic life, housing and the development of cities/towns became important.
The people of Çatalhöyük lived in buildings constructed with mud bricks. Most buildings had multiple rooms which were separated by thinner walls. The roofs were flat and supported by wooden posts. Typically, people entered their houses through their roof. This could have mainly been due to the fact that neighboring houses were separated by a wall, and there was not much space within a “town.”
The most interesting aspect of the Çatalhöyük’s culture is the burying their ancestors. This is one of the first instances in history where a formal burial of the dead is seen. When a family member died, they dug pits into the floor of their homes and buried the individual, then filled the pits back up and covered it. When the houses became unstable and old, it would simply be used as a foundation for a new house. The new homes would be built exactly the same as the old ones.
What would happen if you were the last person in your family to live? Would you get a proper burial or would you be ignored? Archeologists discovered one individual who was buried outside the home, but they do not know if the individual lost his family or if he was passing through the city.
These questions along with others including, why were houses built so close to each other, why did people enter their homes through the roof, and why bury ancestors on the floor which you live, are reasons why Çatalhöyük is an interesting Neolithic community.
Follow this link http://okapi.dreamhosters.com/remixing/mainpage.html to see what archeologists have discovered so far about the Çatalhöyük community.

"Greek- Dark Ages"

2009-10-03T10:37:00.000-07:00

After watching the Ancient Greece movie in class I found some aspects of the film to be intriguing. The detailed art of Greece is very captivating and must take much time and patience for the artist. Today, it is rather rare to see architecture with such detail. The Greek's must have put an abundance of time and resources into their building and seemed to really care about the appearance of their city. After exploring this topic a little further I discovered something that was quite surprising.

The entire Greek culture diminished during The Dark ages for no apparent reason. This time was known as the Dark Ages, which lasted from 1200 BC to 700 BC. Many different works of art and architecture were lost during this time. Trading with surrounding countries came to a halt, entire cities were completely destroyed, and meaningful artifacts were ruined. It was as if the society no longer wanted to work to keep their beauty and strength present. During this time the Greeks transformed their "mighty city life" to a rather simple and small agricultural society. This time period seems to be one large mystery not only because much has been destroyed but also because of the lack of evidence. The people also stopped writing, which left later centuries no reasoning for the disappearing culture. Writing is an important way of life for all people, and for the writing to simply subside was rather appalling to those who discovered this time period.

I tried to put myself in this situation. I could not imagine having a strong and developing culture and then getting rid of it for any reason. What could have caused the Greeks to want to destroy everything they have worked so hard to obtain? Or did something happen that forced their actions or lack thereof? Even with the little evidence left behind from this era theories were later developed giving a plausible reasoning for the abandonment of the Greek culture. The Roman Empire had split into two parts: East and West. The East part was about to prosper for many years following unlike the Western part, which was largely invaded. Because of the division the entire culture seemed to disappear from the endless amount of battles and the unwillingness to compromise.

During the end of the Dark Ages the Greeks finally begun to urbanize and rebuild their once well-built society and artwork. This was a lot of work for the Greeks. But it was worth it in the long run. Today, Greece is filled with some of the world's most famous architecture and artwork.

"The Father of Numbers"

2009-10-01T14:13:00.000-07:00

As a math and history student, I find Pythagoras to be a rather appealing person to examine. His estimated birth year is 570 BCE. As an ancient Greek philosopher, he was of a time of great innovation and discovery. Sadly, none of his writings survive today. This leads to much questioning of weather his many accomplishments are even his own or that of his successors. Nevertheless, it is Pythagoras who is regarded as one of the first great mathematicians and credited as founder of the well-known Pythagorean Theorem.
A significant rule in geometry, the Pythagorean Theorem pertains to right triangles. More specifically, it declares that the sum of the squares of the two right-angle sides is equal to the square of the hypotenuse. In general, A² + B² = C² for any right triangle as in the picture.

However, there are several pieces of evidence that suggest the knowledge of this theorem before Pythagoras' time. One is a Mesopotamian tablet known as Plimpton 322. It was written around 1790 BCE, during Hammurabi's reign and it includes entries related to Pythagorean triples. Furthermore, the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, which is dated to 600 BCE, contains a numerical proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. Significantly, there was no attribution of the theorem to Pythagoras for five hundred years after he lived. Then why does today's world know it as his discovery? As it is, authors such as Plutarch and Cicero gave credit to Pythagoras in their writings so that it has become the most well-known idea.

An interesting result of Pythagoras' life is the legacy he left behind. While he lived, he basically set up a school that was rather secretive by which members were bound by a vow to him and to other members. Pythagoreans considered themselves pure, wearing their hair long and dressing in simple clothing, often barefoot. Both men and women belonged. This intriguing group has had quite an influence on our world and its history.

2009-09-26T07:55:00.000-07:00

Hello, my name is Jen Zoodsma. This is my second semester at GVSU. I transferred from Davenport University where my major was Accounting. Here at Grand Valley, my major is Psychology with concentration in special education. I love working with children. During the summer I am a camp counselor at The Humane Society and during the school year I am the freshmen volleyball coach at Lowell, which is also where I graduated from. I like to keep busy, but when I have free time I like to watch movies and go to concerts. I love all kinds of music and I am always up for any concert.

I have always had an interest in history, but I have never taken a World History class. So I hope that I can learn new things in this class and gain a larger interest in world history. I hope that this blog makes what we learn easier to understand as well as more fun to learn.

Introductory Statement

2009-09-25T21:10:00.000-07:00

Hello my name is Kristi Thompson and I am from Walled Lake, a small town on the east side of the state that is about 45 minutes northwest of Detroit. I graduated from Walled Lake Northern High School, one of the many walled lake high schools and I am currently a junior majoring in English with a minor in history. When I graduate I hope to become a middle school teacher, preferably teaching the sixth grade. I enjoy spending most of my free time hanging out with my friends. I also enjoy watching old classic movies, and as a true English major, I love to read.
I have always been interested in history, but British history has always been my focus because it always seemed to be the most interesting. I have never really had an interest in learning about world history and I have never taken any classes on the subject before so I am hoping to gain a better overall knowledge of world history. For the most part I hope that this class and this blog will allow me to broaden the scope of my general history interest and world history knowledge.

Introductory Statement

2009-09-24T21:16:00.001-07:00

My name is Eric Bassett and I am from Big Rapids, a little city about 45 minutes north of here. I'm a freshmen but already have 30 credits from doing dual-enrollment at FSU. I'm majoring in business and plan on minoring or double majoring in political science. After obtaining my degree here I plan going to law school. I like hanging out with friends, watching movies, listening to music and reading. In the fall I like hunting and fishing, all year round.

I have always found history class interesting but its not my favorite subject. I hope to learn many new things, as dorky as that sounds, I think knowledge is power. I hope that doing this blog will help me stop procrastinating so much. Also, I hope to improve my writing skills here.

Introductory Statement

2009-09-24T15:38:00.000-07:00

My name is Eric Piccard and I'm a junior at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, MI. I have always been in this area, growing up in Grand Rapids and graduating from Kenowa Hills High School. I am a math major for secondary education. As I have always had an interest in history, I decided to choose it for my required teachable minor. I enjoy spending much of my time with friends and family. I love being outside as well as watching movies if I have time beyond doing schoolwork.

In contibuting to this blog over the next several weeks, I hope to gain knowledge in a broad range of topics. Posting frequently will be a challnge, but I look forward to progressing in my writing ability. Overall, I have a desire to learn more about the past and more importantly, learn from it.

Introductory Statement

2009-09-24T13:31:00.000-07:00

Hello, my name is Casey Schwarze, I am from Clarkston Michigan, if you don't know where that is then it might help to know that it is the home town of DTE Energy Music Theater aka Pine Knob and it is close to the Palace of Auburn Hills. I am currently a senior, and I am hoping to graduate in April with a Bachelors of Science in Exercise Science with an Emphasis in Health Fitness Instruction. I am a group exercise instructor for Grand Valley Campus Recreation as well as a Fitness Technician for the Fitness Wellness Center.
I have plans to move to Colorado with my boyfriend when I graduate. I love being outdoors and in the sun. I have always been a math and science kind of person and history has always gone over my head, I am just not good at it, so I am hoping with this class and these posts that I will learn to look at history through different perspectives as well as center in on my own. I am also horrible at grammar so I am sorry for any errors that might be present in this post. I hope to sharpen my writing and grammar skills as well.

Introductory Statement

2009-09-18T19:50:00.001-07:00

My name is Alex LeBon. I’ve lived in the Grand Rapids area my entire life. I graduated from Hudsonville High School. I am a junior pursuing a biomedical science degree with a minor in chemistry. After achieving a degree at Grand Valley State University, I plan on attending chiropractic school. I find joy in several activities including spending time with friends and family, being competitive in almost everything, reading, listening to music, and watching movies.
I have always had a small interest in history. After this class, I hope to further my learning in history, but more importantly, I hope to improve my writing. I hope that these posts and blog will contribute to better my writing.